Glyphosate

Glyphosate

Glyphosate is the most widespread herbicide in the world. It is an organic phosphonate compound patented as a herbicide in 1974. It is used both on tree and herbaceous crops and in areas that are not intended for agriculture.
It is strategic in the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) since some of the most widely cultivated GMOs (e.g. corn, soybean rape) have been made resistant to the herbicide, which can therefore be used in massive doses and accumulates in the final product.
Humans can come into contact with glyphosate both through residential exposure and through water, drinks and even through foods such as bread, cereals and lentils (the herbicide is often used as a desiccant even before harvest), the meat or its derivatives if the animals have been fed GMO feed.
Effects on human health –
It has recently been classified by IARC as 2nd A (probable carcinogen), but it also acts as an endocrine disruptor: especially in the commercial formulation it interferes with the synthesis of progesterone, estrogen and testosterone at concentrations considered non-toxic and lower than the recommended doses and can influence apoptosis in human placental cells.
Glyphosate can interfere with different biological factors and can trigger and worsen many serious diseases and therefore its toxicity for human health is now established by many studies carried out.
There are essentially two mechanisms of action of glyphosate and according to researchers these models lead to full-blown pathogenesis, thus triggering or aggravating various diseases in the human body.
The first mechanism of action is its ability to chelate metals such as calcium, iron, copper, cobalt, magnesium, manganese, nickel and zinc. This process causes a deficit in many physiological and enzymatic functions in humans. In particular, the deficiency of the cytochrome P450 enzyme brings many negative effects because it takes away the body’s innate ability to detoxify harmful external agents. The lack of these elements has repercussions on many transformations and functions of our body with an obvious consequence of malfunctioning in all aspects of human biology.
Furthermore, glyphosate acts on the biochemistry of sulfur and therefore on the synthesis of some amino acids such as methionine, phenylalanine and tyrosine. The production processes of vitamins and other substances essential to the health of the body are located in our gastrointestinal tract and occur with the precious intestinal bacterial flora. With the use of glyphosate the bacterial flora is literally decimated and this no longer has the ability to contribute to the health of our body. In this situation of intestinal dysbiosis, the risk of the onset of metabolic diseases and various gastrointestinal problems, even serious ones, is very high.
As mentioned, the International Agency for Cancer Research has defined glyphosate as a “probable cause of tumors” and therefore carcinogenic to humans.
After some research and tests carried out in Germany, especially on beers, it was found that glyphosate could be even more dangerous than DDT and hide a wider toxicity for humans and the environment.
The consequences that are related to the use of glyphosate are the development of many types of cancer including prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, genital cancer and even non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Additionally, many autoimmune diseases have been linked to the negative effects of glyphosate. Among these we remember the increase in cases of diabetes, psychiatric pathologies such as autism, degenerative diseases, celiac disease even in childhood, as well as food intolerances and other dysmetabolic diseases. Furthermore, cases of infertility, especially male ones, can be linked to glyphosate, as are Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. In addition to all these pathologies, glyphosate has also demonstrated consequences on epigenetic mechanisms, so much so that birth defects and cases of childhood leukemia have increased. This harmful consequence seems to be linked to the exposure of mothers to glyphosate, so much so that in America, 30% of the breast milk drunk by newborns contains this herbicide in doses even 100 times higher than the threshold allowed for declaring drinking water drinkable. Furthermore, even people not exposed to the direct use of glyphosate and therefore who do not actively work in the agricultural field still have glyphosate present in their urine and blood.
Symptoms following exposure to Glyphosate-based formulations are: swollen eyes, numbness of the face, burning and/or itching of the skin, blisters, rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, chest pain, congestion; cough, headache and nausea (Cox, 2004).
The intestinal bacterium Lactobacillus is negatively affected by Glyphosate (Shehata et al., 2013) and its populations are depleted in celiac disease patients (Di Cagno et al., 2011).
This organism is capable of fixing inorganic selenium into more bioavailable organic forms such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine (Pessione, 2012). The deleterious effect of Glyphosate on beneficial bacteria would lead to a depletion in the supply of selenomethionine and selenocysteine. Selenocysteine is present in the catalytic center of the enzymes that protect the thyroid from free radical damage (Triggiani et al., 2009). Free radical damage would lead to apoptosis and autoimmune responses (Tsatsoulis, 2002).
Collectively, these studies suggest that glyphosate may contribute to increased cancer risk. They also highlight that Glyphosate could affect the nervous system and even have implications for Parkinson’s disease.

Effects on soil organisms –
Glyphosate impacts key functions of the rhizosphere, the part of the soil surrounding roots that is essential for plant health and nutrient uptake.
Effects include reduced uptake of essential micronutrients by plants, increased vulnerability to disease and reduced nitrogen fixation, paradoxically resulting in lower crop yields and changes in bacterial composition (Zobiole et al., 2010; Sheng et al. ., 2012).
Various organisms such as fluorescent Pseudomonas and Mn-reducing rhizobacteria are suppressed by glyphosate, lowering defense mechanisms in the rhizosphere normally available in the early stages of plant growth to ward off pathogens (Zobiole et al., 2010).
These changes can have direct impacts on crop health and performance.
Some plant pathogens. such as “Cereal foot disease” (Gaeumannomyces graminis), parasitic fungi of seedlings or root rot (Huber et al., 2005, 2007) and “sudden death syndrome” in soybeans, are facilitated by changes induced by Glyphosate in soil biology and chemistry (Bithell et al., 2009).
Soil biodiversity (bacteria, fungi, detrivores) is also seriously damaged, with negative repercussions on the functionality of the ecosystem, on the quality of the herbaceous cover and on the possibility of using linear infrastructures as potential areas of connection between the different natural areas crossed.
A greater presence of Fusarium has been observed in soybean crops treated with glyphosate-based products. The spread of this fungus poses particular concern because it affects not only plants. In fact, it produces toxins that can enter the food chain and harm humans (Huber & Haneklaus, 2007) and livestock. In pigs, feed contaminated with Fusarium compromises reproduction (Alm et al., 2006) and increases stillbirths (Diaz-Llano & Smith, 2006).
In an effort to combat diseases such as Fusarium, Monsanto markets Roundup Ready 2 Yield, i.e. soybeans with a fungicidal/insecticide coating (Monsanto, 2011).
Surprisingly, globally and in the European Union, the current authorization process for Glyphosate and related commercial formulations does not require exhaustive analyzes of impacts on soil.

Effects on other living organisms –
The effects of glyphosate on various living organisms have now been studied for years and have led to unequivocal results.
All organisms, such as invertebrates, vertebrates, mammals and wildlife in general are affected by their presence in the terrestrial, marine or aerial environment, negatively impacting their biological cycles, the quantity and distribution of populations as well as, obviously, induced diseases which affect on the complex system of habitats.
In insects, for example, significant increases in mutations were found in fruit flies when larvae were exposed to glyphosate during development (Kaya et al., 2000).
As regards bees and other useful insects, the widespread and uncontrolled use of glyphosate is fatal, especially in the presence of surface water collection areas, lentic water bodies, spontaneous flowering and agricultural crops, which constitute sources of intense trophic supply. The physiological damage, and biological impact of glyphosate are consistent with all known conditions related to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD, see Table 1). Glyphosate can be present in the environment throughout the foraging period, resulting in high exposure of bees. Being persistent and cumulative, it can accumulate in nectar and other plant products used by bees.
Laboratory studies have demonstrated a decrease in survival and body weight of Hemilepistus reaumuri (Oniscidae, Woodpigs) (Mohamed et al, 1992).
In the agricultural environment, glyphosate negatively affects a number of species that are beneficial predators of crop pests. In one experimental study, exposure to glyphosate killed more than 80 percent of populations of predatory beetles and 50 percent of parasitoid wasps, ladybugs, and predatory aphids (Hassan et al., 1988).
Other studies in the USA and UK have identified declines in populations of predatory beetles (Brust, 1990; Asteraki et al., 1992) and spiders (Asteraki et al., 1992). Furthermore, female Carabidae produced more eggs in untreated areas than in treated ones (Chiverton & Sotherton, 1991).
Furthermore, the toxicity of glyphosate does not spare waters and their habitats.
In tests in Italy it also emerges that glyphosate is present in drinking and surface water with results of 80% in the Lombardy region. While analyzes and data on the matter are not yet available for the other Italian regions even if we hypothesize a similar result. Such a massive presence in the water indicates its use in agricultural crops which therefore involves exposure to this substance from countless sources.
Fish, amphibians, reptiles, organisms and animals that need aquatic or humid environments are declining exponentially (see IUCN data). The percentages of species at risk of extinction are increasingly higher.
However, genotoxic effects have been detected in European eels exposed to concentrations
environmental (58-116 μg*l-1) of the herbicide Roundup for short periods (Guilherme et al., 2012).
Some evidence suggests effects on the nervous system of aquatic animals similar to those produced by organophosphates.
Recent studies on glyphosate exposure in carnivorous fish have revealed notable effects
negative throughout the digestive system. Protease, lipase, and amylase activities were significantly decreased in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines of fish tested following exposure to glyphosate.
Furthermore, there are countless studies that detect physiological and pathological changes in living organisms, statistically linked to the presence of Glyphosate in various environments.
In mammals, for example, detrimental effects due to habitat changes and declines in food availability (plants and arthropods) and vegetation cover have been observed on small animal populations in forests sprayed with glyphosate (Santillo et al., 1989b; D’Anieri, 1987; Richie et al., 1987; Hjeljord, O. et al., 1988).
Glyphosate accentuates the harmful effects of other food-based chemical residues and environmental toxins. The negative impact is insidious and over time slowly manifests itself as inflammation that damages all the cellular systems of the body.

Effects on ecosystems –
Glyphosate can have negative impacts on biodiversity in many ways, both short-term and long-term and directly and indirectly. It is clear that Glyphosate and its commercial formulations can be harmful to species at different levels of the food chain, including aquatic species.
Many aquatic animals from microscopic algae to fish to molluscs are affected
from exposure to Glyphosate and/or Roundup. The widespread and systematic use of chemical weed control along embankments and roadsides presents various environmental and human health contraindications:
a) risk to the health of passers-by and the population in general caused by contact with the substance;
b) exposure of the slopes, edges and ditches to phenomena of surface erosion and
structural weakening (small landslides and mudslides);
c) risk of contamination of surface water, caused by conveyance into ditches
drainage of water collected at the edges of roadways during rainy events;
d) less effectiveness of vegetation in terms of absorption and reduction of gases and pollutants;
e) impoverishment of biodiversity and the ecological functionality of natural environments
neighboring and in correspondence with embankments and roadsides.