Peganum harmala

Peganum harmala

Wild rue or Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L., 1753) is a succulent plant belonging to the Nitrariaceae family.

Systematics –
From a systematic point of view it belongs to:
Eukaryota domain,
Kingdom Plantae,
Magnoliophyta division,
Class Eudicotyledons,
Sapindales order,
family Nitrariaceae,
Genus Peganum,
P. harmala species.
The terms are synonyms:
– Harmala multifida All.;
– Harmala peganum Crantz;
– Harmala syriaca Bubani;
– Mesembryanthemum caspicum S.G.Gmel.;
– Peganon harmalum St.-Lag.;
– Peganum dauricum Pall.;
– Peganum harmala subsp. multisecta Maxim.;
– Peganum harmala var. garamantum Maire;
– Peganum harmala var. multisectum Maxim.;
– Peganum harmala var. rothschildianum (Buxb.) Maire;
– Peganum rothschildianum Buxb..
The following varieties are recognized within this species:
– Peganum harmala var. grandifiorum Hadidi;
– Peganum harmala var. harmala;
– Peganum harmala var. stenophyllum Boiss..

Etymology –
The term Peganum comes from the Greek πηγανον peganon ruta, in Theophrastus, Dioscorides and other authors.
The specific epithet harmala comes from the Greek ἀρμαά harmalá, wild rue in Dioscorides.

Geographic Distribution and Habitat –
Peganum harmala is a plant native to the eastern region of India but is present in a rather vast area which extends from Morocco, Spain, Italy, north to Serbia, Dagestan and Kazakhstan, south to Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan, and east to western Mongolia, northern China and possibly Bangladesh.
It is a plant known in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.
In Morocco it is quite common and is found throughout the country, with the exception of Western Sahara. In Algeria it is found mainly in the north bordering Morocco and Tunisia, being absent in the southern and central regions. Its presence is reported throughout Tunisia. In Libya it is found in the maritime area, especially around Benghazi, and is not abundant. In Egypt, it grows in the Sinai and has been reported from the east of the eastern desert and rarely found on the central-western coast of the Mediterranean.
In Europe, it is native to Spain, possibly Corsica, large parts of Russia, Serbia, Moldavia, Ukraine (especially Crimea), Romania (possibly introduced), Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete and the Cyclades), Cyprus, Turkey (Thrace) and Southern Italy (including Sardinia, but not Sicily). It is also native to the Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia.
In the Iberian peninsula it is absent from Portugal and Andorra, but it is not rare in Spain, especially in the south-east, in the depression of the Ebro, and in the internal valleys of the Duero and Tagus, but it is rare in southern Andalusia and not it occurs in the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands, and west along the Portuguese border, Galicia, the northern coast and the northern mountain ranges.
In Turkey, it is found in both Thrace and large parts of Anatolia, but is absent from the northern coast of the Black Sea. It is abundant in some regions of southern and central Anatolia.
In Israel it is most commonly found around the Dead Sea, Judean Mountains and Desert, Negev and surrounding areas, including areas of Jordan and Saudi Arabia, being rare or very rare in the Northern Mountains, Galilee, coastal areas and the Arava valley.
It grows in the drier parts of the northern half of India but is perhaps native only to the Kashmir and Ladakh regions. It is also found in Bangladesh.
However, the distribution in China is controversial. The 2008 Flora of China considers it native to northern China, in the provinces of Gansu, western Hebei, western Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, northern Shanxi, Tibet and Xinjiang. The 2017 China Species Catalog considers it limited to Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Gansu.
This plant has also been added to the Global Registry lists of introduced and invasive species for the countries of South Africa, Mexico, France and Ukraine, although it has not been reported to have an adverse impact in any of these countries. As of 2020 it is included in the South African National Biodiversity Institute’s Plants of Southern Africa website as an introduced plant to South Africa.
Regarding its introduction to America, it is reported that Peganum harmala was first planted in the United States in 1928 in New Mexico by a farmer who wished to produce a dye called “Turkish red” from its seeds. From here the plant spread over much of southern New Mexico and the Big Bend region of Texas. Further spread occurred from east of Los Angeles in California to the southernmost tip of Nevada. Outside of these regions, distribution in the United States is not continuous and localized. As of 2019 it has been reported in southern Arizona (in at least 3 adjacent counties), northeastern Montana (2 adjacent counties), northern Nevada (Churchill County), Oregon (city of Prineville in high desert of Oregon) and possibly Washington.
Its habitat is varied and depends on the area where it grows. In arid areas of the United States it can be considered a halophyte. In Kashmir and Ladakh it is known at altitudes of 300 – 2400 m, in China 400 – 3600 m, in Turkey 0 – 1500 m and in Spain between 0 and 1200 m.
In China, it grows in slightly saline sands near oases and in the arid grasslands of desert areas.
In Spain it can be found in abandoned fields, rubbish dumps, stony slopes, roadsides, plowed and tilled land, as well as disturbed and saline scrub.
In Italy it is found more rarely with presence in Puglia and Sardinia.
In Morocco it is found in the steppes, in the arid coasts, in the arid uncultivated fields and in the ruins.
In Israel it is a common dominant plant together with Anabasis syriaca and Haloxylon scoparium in a low semi-shrub steppe ecosystem which during dry years has almost no vegetation cover, growing on loess-derived saline soils, and also grows among semi-steppe shrubs , Mediterranean forests and shrubs and deserts. Between 800 and 1300 m elevation on the sandstone slopes of the mountains around Petra, Jordan, there is an open Mediterranean steppe forest dominated by Juniperus phoenicea and Artemisia herba-alba together with occasional Pistacia atlantica and Crataegus aronia trees with common shrubs such as Thymelaea hirsuta, Ephedra campylopoda, Ononis natrix, Hammada salicornia and Anabasis articulata. In Turkey it is often found with Euphorbia virgata at the foot of Mount Ararat, Iğdır province.

Description –
Peganum harmala is a herbaceous perennial and succulent plant growing up to 80 cm in height with glabrous stems.
The leaves are simply pinnate, the largest also bipinnate, divided into 1.5-3 x 12-22 mm lacinias, mucronate. The stipules are very small, silky.
The flowers are terminal, white, with 5-16 mm long sepals, linear, unequal, glabrous or with puberulent-glandular margins, often pinnaufid. The petals are 10-16 mm, glabrous, yellowish. Fruits (3-) 5-8 x (4-) 6-9 mm, globose, somewhat compressed, trilocular, with straight and persistent stylus. The flowers are pollinated by insects but with differentiation according to the area where it grows.
The anthesis is between May and June.
The fruits are cartilaginous capsules, globose (8-10 mm), with an erect, persistent style of 6-8 mm.

Cultivation –
Peganum harmala is a perennial plant that grows wild, often in saline soils, and is harvested from the wild for local use as food, medicine and source of materials.
The dispersal of seeds occurs by gravity but also by means of water and, according to a Mongolian study, exclusively by human activities.
A species of tiny hairy beetle, Thamnurgus pegani, has been found in the stems of P. harmala in Turkey and elsewhere. It feeds only on P. harmala and has been proposed as a candidate for use in biological control of this plant.
For its cultivation it prefers a well drained light soil which retains the humidity and an open position in full sun, preferring dry substrata; moreover it also grows in poor soils.
Although this species comes from arid desert areas, it responds well to cultivation as long as the soil is very well drained.
It can tolerate temperatures down to about -20°C if the soil is dry.
Propagation is by seed, with sowing in late spring. Once the seedlings have emerged, they must be placed in individual pots and when they are large enough to be handled, they must be transplanted in a sunny and protected area, in colder climates, for their first winter. Watering must be rational, not overdoing it, especially when the plants are dormant.
It can also be propagated by division in late spring.

Customs and Traditions –
Peganum harmala is a quite popular plant in Persian cultural traditions and is a hallucinogenic; linguists David Flattery and Martin Schwartz wrote a book in 1989 in which they theorized that the plant is the Avestan haoma mentioned in ancient Persian Zoroastrian texts. The transcribed word haoma is thought to be probably related to the Vedic word soma; these names refer to a magical, presumably entheogenic plant/drink mentioned in ancient Indo-Iranian texts but whose exact identity has been lost to history.
This plant was first recognizably described as πήγανον ἄγριον (péganon agrion) by Dioscorides, who mentions it as μῶλυ (moly) in some parts of Anatolia (although Dioscorides distinguishes the “true” μῶλυ as a other bulbous plant). Subsequently Galen describes the plant with the name μῶλυ, following Dioscorides citing numerous other names by which it was known: ἅρμολαν, armolan (harmala), πήγανον ἄγριον and in Syria βησασὰν, besasan (besasa). For much of later European history Galen was seen as the pinnacle of human medical knowledge. As such, during the early Middle Ages, the herb was known as moly or herba immolum.
In the 12th century Arab farmer Ibn al-‘Awwam of Seville, Spain wrote that the seeds were used in baking bread; the fumes are used to facilitate fermentation and help with the taste (he usually cites older authors).
In the mid-16th century Dodoens recounts how pharmacists sold the plant under the name harmel as a type of extra-strong rue.
The plant contains some alkaloids, the main ones being harmaline, identified for the first time in seed shells by Göbel in 1837 and reported in 1841, and harmine identified for the first time in seed shells by Fritzsche in 1848.
The active ingredients contained in the seeds of P. harmala are, among others, alkaloids of the beta-carbolic group: harmine, harmaline, harmalol, harmano and tetrahydroharmine; these can reach 4% of the weight of the seeds.
Some of the pharmacological properties of the plant are due to its inhibitory activity on the monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzyme.
According to a study conducted in the laboratory by researchers at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, harmine was able to act on the beta cells of the pancreas, which could have implications for the treatment of diabetes.
This plant is used for both food and medicinal purposes.
The seed is used as a spice and is a purifying agent.
Some caution is advised because the seed has narcotic properties, inducing a sense of euphoria and releasing inhibitions.
An edible oil is obtained from the seed.
In medicine, the fruit and the seed are used as digestives, diuretics, hallucinogens, narcotics and uterine stimulants.
They are taken internally in the treatment of stomach ailments, urinary and sexual disorders, epilepsy, menstrual problems, mental and nervous illnesses.
The seed has also been used as an anthelmintic to rid the body of tapeworms. This remedy should be used with caution and preferably under the guidance of a trained practitioner as excessive doses cause vomiting and hallucinations.
The seeds, as mentioned, contain harmine, which is a substance that is used in research on mental illness, encephalitis and inflammation of the brain. Small amounts stimulate the brain and are said to be therapeutic, but in excess harmine depresses the central nervous system.
A crude preparation of the seed is more effective than an extract due to the presence of related indoles.
Due to its characteristics, the seed was used in the past as a drug of truth.
The oil obtained from the seed is said to be an aphrodisiac and to have galactogogue, ophthalmic, soporific and vermifuge properties.
The seed is used externally in the treatment of hemorrhoids and baldness.
The whole plant is said to be an abortifacient, an aphrodisiac, an emmenagogue and a galactogogue.
A decoction of the leaves is used in the treatment of rheumatism.
The root has been used as a parasiticide to kill body lice and is used internally in the treatment of rheumatism and nervous conditions.
Among other uses, it should be remembered that a red dye is obtained from the seed; this is used extensively in Western Asia, especially as a carpet dye. The stems, roots, and seeds can also be used to make inks, carpet and wool dyes, and tattoos.
The mature seed contains 3.8 to 5.8% of the alkaloids harmine, harmaline, harmalol and peganine; these are ineffective as a contact poison but active in vapor form where they are effective against algae, in higher concentrations for aquatic animals, and lethal to molds, bacteria, and intestinal parasites.
Finally it is reported that the seed is used as incense.
Furthermore, the dry seeds mixed with other ingredients are placed on charcoal, where they explode with small noises, releasing a fragrant smoke.
The preparation obtained from the combination of a MAO-inhibitor with a plant containing DMT is called Anahuasca (from the English Analogue of Ayahuasca, i.e. an analogue of Ayahuasca); Peganum harmala has often been used to prepare this infusion.
Among the dangers in the use of this plant, it should be remembered that it should be used with caution because, although the seed is used in medicine and as a condiment, it contains hallucinogenic and narcotic alkaloids; this taken in excess causes hallucinations and vomiting.

Method of Preparation –
Peganum harmala is a plant known since ancient times and used, especially in the Persian tradition, as a hallucinogenic.
It is used in the food and medicine fields.
As food, the seed is used as a spice and is a purifying agent.
An edible oil is extracted from the seed.
In the medicinal field, the fruits and the seed are used internally as digestives, diuretics, hallucinogens, narcotics and uterine stimulants. They are also taken in the treatment of stomach disorders, urinary and sexual disorders, epilepsy, menstrual problems, mental and nervous diseases.
The seed has also been used as an anthelmintic.
However, the uses of the various parts of the plant vary with the locality where it grows, so various parts are used.
For example, a decoction of the leaves is obtained against rheumatism.
The root is also used for its biocidal properties or internally in the treatment of rheumatism and nervous conditions.
Finally, it is interesting to use the seed or other parts of the plant to obtain inks, dyes for carpets and wool, and tattoos.

Guido Bissanti

Sources
– Acta Plantarum – Flora of the Italian Regions.
– Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
– GBIF, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.
– Useful Tropical Plants Database.
– Conti F., Abbate G., Alessandrini A., Blasi C. (ed.), 2005. An annotated checklist of the Italian vascular flora, Palombi Editore.
– Pignatti S., 1982. Flora of Italy, Edagricole, Bologna.
– Treben M., 2000. Health from the Lord’s Pharmacy, Advice and experiences with medicinal herbs, Ennsthaler Editore.

Photo source:
– https://bs.plantnet.org/image/o/efe69c624097bacc0e2ebea3f8912b12bdf9855f

Attention: The pharmaceutical applications and alimurgical uses are indicated for informational purposes only, they do not in any way represent a medical prescription; we therefore decline all responsibility for their use for curative, aesthetic or food purposes.