Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

The Elephant foot yam or Whitespot giant arum (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson, 1977) is a herbaceous species belonging to the Araceae family.

Systematics –
From a systematic point of view it belongs to:
Eukaryota domain,
Kingdom Plantae,
Subkingdom Tracheobionta,
Spermatophyta superdivision,
Magnoliophyta division,
Class Liliopsida,
Subclass Arecidae,
Arales Order,
Araceae family,
Subfamily Aroidae,
Tribu Thomsonieae,
Genus Amorphophallus,
Species A. paeoniifolius.
The term is basionym:
– Dracontium paeoniifolium Dennst.
The terms are synonyms:
– Amorphophallus campanulatus Decne.;
– Amorphophallus campanulatus f. darnleyensis F.M.Bailey;
– Amorphophallus campanulatus subsp. blumei Prain;
– Amorphophallus campanulatus subsp. darnleyensis F.M.Bailey;
– Amorphophallus campanulatus var. blumei Prain;
– Amorphophallus chatty Andrews;
– Amorphophallus decurrens (Blanco) Kunth;
– Amorphophallus dixenii K.Larsen & S.S.Larsen;
– Amorphophallus dubius Blume;
– Amorphophallus giganteus Blume;
– Amorphophallus gigantiflorus Hayata;
– Amorphophallus malaccensis Ridl.;
– Amorphophallus microappendiculatus Engl.;
– Amorphophallus paeoniifolius subsp. campanulatus (Decne.) Sivad.;
– Amorphophallus paeoniifolius var. campanulatus Sivad.;
– Amorphophallus paeoniifolius var. paeoniifolius;
– Amorphophallus rex Prain;
– Amorphophallus rex Prain ex Hook.f.;
– Amorphophallus sativus Blume;
– Amorphophallus virosus N.E.Br.;
– Arum campanulatum Roxb.;
– Arum decurrens Blanco;
– Arum phalliferum Oken;
– Arum rumphii Gaudich.;
– Arum rumphii Oken;
– Candarum hookeri Schott;
– Candarum roxburghii Schott;
– Candarum rumphii Schott;
– Conophallus giganteus Schott;
– Conophallus giganteus Schott ex Miq.;
– Conophallus sativus (Blume) Schott;
– Dracontium polyphyllum Dennst.;
– Dracontium polyphyllum G.Forst.;
– Hydrosme gigantiflora (Hayata) S.S.Ying;
– Kunda verrucosa Raf.;
– Plesmonium nobile Schott;
– Pythion campanulatum Mart..

Etymology –
The term Amorphophallus comes from the Greek ἄμορφος ámorphos shapeless, ugly, deformed and from φαλλός phallós phallus, penis: reference to the ungainly appearance of the spadix.
The specific epithet paeoniifolius derives from the two Latin names Paeon and folius. Paeon, in turn, originates from Greek mythology. Paeon was the name of a legendary character associated with medicine and medicinal plants. In Greek mythology, Paeon was a student of Asclepius, the god of medicine. Paeon was said to have discovered the healing properties of some plants, including a plant with red flowers called “peony” (Paeonia officinalis). Hence the generic name of the genus of plants “Paeonia”. the term folius comes from the Latin and means “leaf”. This element is commonly used to indicate that a plant has leaves similar to those of another plant. In the case of “paeoniifolius”, the term indicates that the plant has leaves similar to those of the genus “Paeonia”.

Geographic Distribution and Habitat –
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is a plant whose origin and domestication center was previously considered to be India, where it is most widely used as a food resource. However a genetic study in 2017 showed that Indian populations have lower genetic diversity than those of Island Southeast Asia, so this plant is now believed to have originated from Island Southeast Asia and have spread westward into Thailand and India, resulting in three independent domestication events. From island Southeast Asia, they also spread further west into Madagascar and eastward to the coast of New Guinea and Oceania by Austronesian migrations, although they may have spread south to Australia without human intervention.
The plant is widespread in southern China (including Taiwan), Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Laos, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Borneo, the island of Java, Malaysia, the Philippines, Celebes, Sumatra, New Guinea, northern Australia, Fiji and Samoa . It is considered naturalized in Madagascar and the Seychelles.
Its habitat is that of secondary forests or on areas with abundant leaf debris in humid shady habitats of tropical zones, in shrub forests and in grasslands in arid valleys at altitudes below 750 meters.
This plant has spread thanks to its centuries-old cultivation in tropical Asia. It was widely transported easily by humans and escaped cultivation until naturalized, so its natural distribution is unclear.

Description –
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is a perennial herbaceous plant that produces a single inflorescence, followed by a solitary leaf. After the growing season, it dies back into an underground storage organ (tuber). The tubercle is dark brown, flattened, globular, up to 50 × 30 cm with prominent deep scars. Weighs up to about 15 kg.
The leaves are usually one (sometimes two) per tuber. The leaf stalk grows up to 2 m tall and 20 cm in diameter with a rough, warty surface; it is pale to dark green or greenish-blackish in color with light mottling and numerous dark specks. The lamina is up to 3 m in diameter and deeply segmented; leaflets up to 35×12 cm.
The spadix is up to 70 cm long. The lower portion of the spadix is female and is covered with pistils (female parts). Each pistil consists of a pale green or brown ovary with a brown stalk (style) and a two- or three-lobed yellow head (stigma). The closest floral zone is masculine and contains tightly packed yellow stamens. The tip of the spadix is a bulbous, rounded, deeply wrinkled dark brown appendage.
The spathe (bract surrounding the spadix) is bell-shaped, wider than long, up to 45 × 60 cm, light green to dark brown in color with pale spots on the outside. It opens outward to form a curled, shiny brown, necklace-like structure around the spadix. The basal part of the interior is pale yellow-green.
The fruits, about 2 × 1 cm, are bright red when ripe. The fruits are borne on a 20-100 cm long stem. The flower (spadix) emits an odor reminiscent of rotting meat, which attracts pollinators such as flies and carrion beetles.

Cultivation –
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is a plant that has been cultivated for its edible tuber in lowland tropical Asia for centuries.
It is an important reserve crop in many regions, especially in famine years.
Its cultivation requires a temperature between 25 and 35 °C with an annual rainfall of 1,000 – 1,500 mm.
The development of the corm is favored during periods of drought and the best crops are obtained on deep, fertile, alluvial, slightly acidic soils. Does not like heavy clay soils.
The plants require some shade, especially when young, and require moist but well-drained, humus-rich, fertile soil.
The plants are generally grown on a three-year cycle.
An interesting technique used in Indonesia is to dig up the tuber after a year and then replant it upside down. This stimulates lateral bud growth and increases the overall size of the tuber.
Yields of 20 tons per hectare can be obtained.
There are many cultured forms, some of which are lower in calcium oxalate crystals and fewer or no alkaloids.
The plant annually produces one or two huge leaves and a short flowering stem. When ripe for pollination, the flowers have a fetid odor to attract carrion flies and midges. This smell disappears once the flowers have been pollinated.
The plant reproduces by seed, which does not have a long germinability duration, in draining loam rich in humus kept humid at a temperature of 24-26 °C, with rather variable germination times, starting from 3-4 weeks, and the small tubers produced during the growing season which flower after 3-4 years.

Customs and Traditions –
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is widely grown for its edible tubers, which are an important source of carbohydrates in India and Indonesia and a valuable secondary crop in tropical Asia. It can be found for sale in international food markets.
The common names of this plant vary according to the areas where it is grown; the most common are: elephant foot yam, telinga potato (English); you bing mo yu (Chinese); apon, bagang, oroi, pungapong (Filipino); jamikand, suran (Hindi); eles, kembang, suweg, walur (Indonesian); duk dua, kabuk (Lao); suranah (Sanskrit); buk, mansuran (Thai); kurruna kalungu (Tamil); khoai nuwa, nuwa chuoong (Vietnamese).
This plant is suitable for tropical and subtropical climates, widely cultivated, both for human and animal food, for the tubers rich in starch, minerals and vitamins, in particular the non-sour and pungent varieties, devoid of calcium oxalate needles, present in spontaneous plants, which can cause burning and irritation of the mouth, when ingested raw, and dermatitis and allergic reactions during handling.
Furthermore, the tubers and the leaves are utilized in the traditional medicine, in particular Indian, for various pathologies.
However, the tuber of the wild species is considered totally toxic and inedible, which is why the wild plant is only used for medicinal purposes.
In food use, the cooked corm is used. This must be well boiled or baked.
The corms are usually harvested when they are three years old, at this stage they can weigh up to 9 kg; furthermore they can be stored for several months at 10 °C.
The fresh corms are transformed into curds, or minced and then dried.
Curd is relatively tasteless, but it absorbs flavors well and therefore can be used as a carbohydrate element in a wide variety of other foods.
Even the young leaves and petioles can be eaten cooked and used as a vegetable; even these, however, must be thoroughly cooked.
In the medicinal field, the root is carminative, tonic, stomachic and tonic. It is dried and used in the treatment of hemorrhoids and dysentery.
The fresh root acts as an acrid stimulant and expectorant, it is widely used in India in the treatment of acute rheumatism. Also for these uses a certain caution is advised, due to their toxicity.
The stem is cut off and the inside of the stem eaten raw, in the treatment of snake bites.
The sap from the stalk is fermented and drunk as a cure for diarrhea and dysentery.
Other uses include agroforestry. The plants are often grown as an undergrowth crop in woodlands or in plantations of betel (Areca spp.), coconuts (Cocos nucifera), bananas (Musa spp.), or coffee (Coffea spp.).
The plant is also widely used as forage.

Method of Preparation –
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is a widely cultivated plant, both for human and animal nutrition, for the tubers rich in starch, minerals and vitamins, in particular the non-sour and pungent varieties.
However the plant has medicinal properties and is used in many Ayurvedic (traditional Hindu) preparations.
Parts of the plant are traditionally used in the treatment of a wide range of conditions, including parasitic worms, inflammation, coughs, flatulence, constipation, hemorrhoids, anemia and fatigue.
In the Indian state of West Bengal, Assam and neighboring Bangladesh, it is called Ol (ওল/ওল কচু). It is usually eaten pureed or fried or added to curries and, more rarely used pickled or to make chips. In some households, the green leaves and stems are also cooked as a green vegetable.
In Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, it is called Suran.
In Bihar, it is used in oal curry (i.e. Elephant Foot curry), oal bharta or chokha, pickles and chutney. Oal chutney is also called Barabar chutney as it contains mango, ginger and oal in equal amounts, hence the name barabar (meaning “in equal amount”).
In Chhattisgarh, it is called Zimmikanda or Zaminkand and eaten as a curry, being a delicacy among the people of Chhattisgarh.
In Tripura it is called Batema and is prepared by making a paste with sodium bicarbonate (sodium bicarbonate) and water to remove its turnip skins (calcium oxalate needles). The dough is shaped into buns and boiled with water containing baking soda, after which the water is discarded. The buns are then cut into pieces and combined with fresh garlic paste and mosdeng (a spicy paste of dried fish/shrimp and chilli). Also, the leaves and stems are eaten by cutting them into pieces and frying them.
In Karnataka, it is called Suvarnagadde.
In South India, especially Kerala, it is known as Chena (ചേന), the tuber has been a part of people’s diet for centuries. In Tamil it is called kaaraa karanai kizangu (காறாக்கரணைக் கிழங்கு), chénaikkizangu (சேனைக்கிழங்க ு). It is mainly served as steamed chunks (പുഴുക്ക്) alongside the traditional green chili, coconut oil, shallot and garlic chutney, although the curry preparation is also common as a side dish to rice. It is made into a thick chutney (masiyal, மசியல்), typically eaten as an accompaniment to a rice dish. In the past it was the main source of carbohydrates, especially during the famine days of the region, together with the more popular tapioca. The bud before flowering is also used to make curry. All parts of the flower can be used to make different types of garnishes.
In Nepal it is called oal, kaan or suran and is mainly grown in the southern lowlands of the country. Its curry is eaten in Jitiya and Deepawali festivals.
In the Philippines, it is known as pongapong. The young leaves, stems and corms are eaten as vegetables or made into sweets. They are thoroughly cooked to destroy the pungent oxalate crystals.

Guido Bissanti

Sources
– Acta Plantarum – Flora of the Italian Regions.
– Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
– GBIF, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.
– Useful Tropical Plants Database.
– Conti F., Abbate G., Alessandrini A., Blasi C. (ed.), 2005. An annotated checklist of the Italian vascular flora, Palombi Editore.
– Pignatti S., 1982. Flora of Italy, Edagricole, Bologna.
– Treben M., 2000. Health from the Lord’s Pharmacy, Advice and experiences with medicinal herbs, Ennsthaler Editore.

Photo source:
– https://inaturalist-open-data.s3.amazonaws.com/photos/249352502/original.jpg

Attention: The pharmaceutical applications and alimurgical uses are indicated for informational purposes only, they do not in any way represent a medical prescription; we therefore decline all responsibility for their use for curative, aesthetic or food purposes.